Explain how the sympathetic nervous system (and endocrinesystem) act directly to regulate heart rate and thus cardiacoutput. Include a detailed description of the mechanism (includethe target cells, the proteins, signaling molecules, ions, andchanges in membrane pontial where appropriate) and explain how themechanism operates to alter heart rate.Explain how theparasympathetic nervous system acts to directly regulate cardiacoutput (1 mechanism). Discuss each mechanism separately including adetailed description of each mechanism (include the target cells,the proteins, signaling molecules, ions, and changes in membranepontial where appropriate). Make clear how each affects cardiacoutput. This shoul require about half a page.Explain in detail theFrank-Starling law of the heart. Be sure to define what it is, anddescribe how it operates (the mechanism). Explain why it is animportant way that cardiac output is regulated. Demonstrate yourunderstanding by describing a particular scenario when it wouldoperate and its significance.
